Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the cognitive level of analysis. (22)

Discuss (22) – A considered and balanced review, including a range of arguments, factors or hypothesis. Opinions and conclusions presented clearly supported by appropriate evidence.

Research methods

Research method: Experiments
How are experiments used?

Frederic Bartlett – War Of The Ghosts study (Schema)
[A] Prove that memory is reconstructive and schemas influence recall.

Demonstrate role of culture in schema processing.
[P]
  • Participants were European Americans and Native Americans.
  • Bartlett ask participants to read a Native American folk story twice.
  • Then asked them to recite reproduce the story 15 minutes after reading.
  • No participants knew the aim and purpose of the task.
[F]
  • Native American participants found it easier to reproduce the story.
  • European American version of the story left out or replaced details related to Native American Culture
    e.g. Canoe -> Boat.
  • European Americans filled in the gaps in their memory with their own cultural schema.
[C]
  • People reconstruct the past by trying to fit it into existing schemas.
  • More complex the information, the more likely elements are forgotten/distorted.
  • People try to find a familiar pattern in experiences, past or new.
  • People uses existing schemas to fill in the gaps of their memory, subconsciously.
  • Memory, according to Bartlett, is an imaginative reconstruction of experience.
[E]
  • Methodology not sophisticated.
  • No IV, DV or Control.
  • Making it difficult to measure or compare outcome.
  • Emic approach: Result specific to European American and Native American culture.
  • Low potential generalising ability .


Loftus &amp Palmer – Car crash study (Reconstructive memory)
[A] To prove the unreliability of memory.
[P]
  • 45 students were shown videos of car crashes.
  • They were then asked a series of questions about the specifics of the car crashes.
  • The critical question was “About how fast was the cars going when they hit each other?”
  • The verb “hit” was replaced with “Smashed”, “Collided”, “Bump” and “Contacted” for different participants.
[F]
  • Those who were asked with “Smashed” averaged the mean speed of 40.8 mph.
  • Those who were asked with “Contacted” averaged the mean speed of 31.8 mph.
[C]
  • The phrasing of the question brought a change in speed estimated.
  • Due to schema activated by the chose verb.
  • Shows schema can affect memory.
  • Shows the unreliability of reconstructive memory.
[E]
  • Confounding variable: Presumed ability to perceive the velocity of moving object.
  • Demand characteristics: Participants corrected their original answer according to the chosen verb.
  • Student sample. not enough to generalise to the mass population.
  • Ecological validity: Low, car crash was not real, therefore less emotion was involved affecting the level of detail retained.
  • Unethical and unfeasible to create real car crashes.
  • Forced participants to watch graphic car crashes.
  • Participants are generally desensitised because of the media.
  • No distress due to watching car crashes reported.

Why are experiments used?
Strengths of Experiment

Weaknesses of Experiment




Research method: Technology
How is technology used?

Tali Sharot – 9/11 Flashbulb Memory (Flashbulb Memory)
[A] Investigate upon the existence of Flashbulb Memory.
[P]
  • 24 witnesses of the 9/11 incident were found from different location of Manhattan as subjects.
  • Subjects were placed in an fMRI machine.
  • Subjects were asked to recall the event of 9/11.
  • Subjects were also asked to recall their summer holiday (for control purpose).
[F]
  • People closer to where the event happened (where the World Trade Center was) had a more in-depth recall of the event.
  • When compared to subject’s summer holiday, the level of detail given for 9/11 incident was higher.
  • Parahippocampal Gyrus (Para-hippo-campal Gy-rus – responsible for LTM retrieval) was relatively inactive when recalling memories from 9/11 when compared to recalling events from summer holiday.
  • Amygdala (responsible for processing memory of emotional reaction) was relatively more active when recalling memories from 9/11.
[C]
  • Different part of the brain was used for different Flashbulb Memory retrieval and general LTM retrieval.
  • Supports Flashbulb Memory as a different type of memory than LTM.
  • Collectivist culture – tend to suppress emotion, memory encoded at a shallow level.
  • Individualist culture – encouraged to express emotion, memory encoded at a deeper level (Levels of processing theory – Craik & Lorkhart).
[E]
  • Observing the concentration of deoxygenated haemoglobin is an accurate measure for brain activity.
  • Ecologically valid. Questions were asked about real life situations.
  • May argue that it is still laboratory condition, overtly observing may cause Demand Characteristics.
  • Pressure under lab conditions may cause alteration of results.
  • Possible confirmation bias.
  • No cause-and-effect relationship can be established through the scan.
  • Relies heavily upon the interpretation of the researcher.
  • The Amygdala showing response may well be the subject’s expression of depressed emotion while recalling 9/11.
  • Ethical considerations: Privacy of the subjects may be invaded because the fMRI indicates a general representation of their thought process.


Montague – Neuromarketing study (fMRI)
[A] Investigate cognition of consumers’ preferences.
[P]
  • Invited 70 participants to a blind taste test of Pepsi and Coca-Cola.
  • Participants were asked to rate the two after the blind test.
  • They were then placed into the fMRI machine for scanning their brain activity.
[F]
  • Pepsi was by far the most preferred drink in the blind test.
  • The Ventral Putamen, part of the brain’s pleasure center, lit up more in the fMRI scans when tasting Pepsi.
[C]
  • Findings do not match with the general public’s preference of Coca-Cola over Pepsi.
  • fMRI scans (neuroplasticity technology) can be used for identifying consumer preferences.
[E]
  • Sample size not big enough to represent the nation.
  • Ethical considerations: Confidentiality problems.
  • Thoughts and preferences should personal and private.

Why is technology used?
Strengths of Technology

Weaknesses of Technology


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